Definition of critical thinking

Critical thinking has its roots in critical theory and the concept of scepticism – the questioning of the source of truthfulness and the reliability of knowledge (Brechin et al., 2000).

Hence, reviewing the literature shows that despite widespread interest in promoting this goal “there is no consensus on a definition of critical thinking” (Fasko, 2003, p.08).

Indeed, critical thinking has been defined from different perspectives.

To clarify its meaning we’ll focus on its cognitive and affective aspects.

Critical thinking: The cognitive aspect

Most theorists who base their theories, research, and definitions of critical thinking on cognitive and developmental psychology often define critical thinking as “an active and systematic cognitive strategy to examine, evaluate, understand events, solve problems, and make decisions based on sound reasoning and valid evidence” (Levy, 1997, p. 236).

Similarly, Diestler (2001) believes that critical thinking is “the use of specific criteria to evaluate reasoning and make decisions” (p.2).

So, critical thinking is a more purposeful and reasoned kind of thinking that intends to achieve a particular goal.

Unlike ordinary thinking which is simple, straightforward, and without standards, critical thinking involves skillful, responsible thinking that facilitates good judgment. This is because it relies upon criteria, is self-correcting, and is sensitive to context (Lipman,1988).

For this reason, critical thinking has been described as the scientific method since it involves the skills of scientific investigation such as questioning, hypothesis testing, data gathering and analyzing, and concluding, etc.

A well-cultivated critical thinker raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely; gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively; comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions (Paul & Elder,2006, p.4).

A strong connection has been made between critical and higher-order thinking.

Drawing on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) and Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision (2001), there are two kinds of thinking.

Lower-order thinking (knowledge and understanding) focuses on memorization and basic comprehension. And higher-order thinking (application, synthesis, evaluation, and creation) involves applying ideas to new areas and innovating concepts or hypotheses. These higher cognitive levels are seen to involve critical thinking.

Researchers have argued that one cannot assume students will automatically become critical thinkers. So, explicit teaching of thinking is believed to be necessary.

Therefore, to support our students to think critically we need to develop the necessary skills to instil such sophisticated reasoning so that they can make rational decisions in the context of both schooling and daily life.

What are critical thinking skills?

Critical thinking involves a variety of skills. Based on research analysing the cognitive processes involved in critical thinking (Luke et al., 2007) here are seven critical thinking skills we need to target :

1. Observing: Naming, identifying, and making sense-based descriptions.
2. Interpreting: Explaining, making inferences, working with hypotheses and data.
3. Evaluating: Justifying a claim, hypothesis, or idea.
4. Connecting: Making comparisons to materials, guides, or information; or, making comparisons or connections to known objects in the world.
5. Problem Finding: Proposing a question, hypothesis, idea, or articulating the need for information and/or evidence.
6. Comparing: Comparing multiple sources, objects, or pieces of evidence. Noticing patterns among materials evidence.
7. Flexible Thinking: Remaining open to possibilities, and alternative explanations; incorporating the thinking of others into own thinking; considering questions from multiple perspectives.

Critical thinking: The affective aspect

Critical thinking does not only involve mental processes but also learning attitudes.

A student may have the requisite skills to think critically but fails to do so because he lacks the necessary attitudes that make up the critical spirit.

Open-mindedness, curiosity, wholeheartedness, and responsibility were seen as important traits for developing the habit of thinking critically.

Buskist and Irons (2008) maintain that to be critical thinkers students need to learn several subtasks including among others:

• Developing a sceptical approach to problem-solving and decision-making.
• Breaking down problems into their simplest outcomes.
• Searching for evidence that both supports and refutes a given conclusion.
• Maintaining a vigilant attitude toward their personal bias, assumptions, and values that may interfere with making an objective decision.

However, to develop these attitudes, students need to have the willingness, desire, and disposition to engage in such a process of reasoning.

So, certain affective dispositions are necessary for critical thinking. These include:

1. Analyticity: Prizing the application of reasoning and the use of evidence to resolve problems, anticipating potential conceptual or practical difficulties, and consistently being alert to the need to intervene.

2. Inquisitiveness: Being intellectually curious and possessing a desire to learn even when the application of the knowledge is not readily apparent.

3. Open-mindedness: Being tolerant of divergent views and sensitive to the possibility of one’s own bias.

4. Systematicity: Being organized, orderly, focused, and diligent in an inquiry.

5. Truth-seeking: Being eager to seek the best knowledge in a given context, courageous about asking questions, and honest and objective about pursuing inquiry even if the findings do not support one’s self-interests or preconceived notions.

6. Cognitive Maturity: Trusting one’s own reasoning processes and the ability to lead others in the rational resolution of problems.

7. Judiciousness: Approaching problems, inquiry, and decision-making with a sense that some problems are necessarily ill-structured, and many times judgments must be made on standards, contexts, and evidence that preclude certainty. (Facione, 1998)

 

It follows that critical thinking is a process that encompasses skills, attitudes as well as affective and ethical issues (it has a value base that aims to improve human functioning, safety, health, and emotional well-being).

Knowing this, how can we then make our students critical thinkers?

Strategies to boost students’ critical thinking

Here are some strategies to incorporate in your instruction :

• Raise students’ awareness of the importance of critical thinking, the processes that they are engaged in and the targeted objectives;
• create a friendly, supportive, and non-threatening classroom atmosphere that promotes risk-taking and speculative thinking. Within such an atmosphere, students’ voices are heard and considered, respect is shared and dialogue is maintained ;
• teach students critical thinking skills and active learning strategies that can help them engage successfully in the process and develop more critical attitudes. So, explain those strategies, model, and provide practice (for example, how to analyse a piece of information and make inferences);
• encourage students to set goals for their learning, self-assess, and monitor their progress ;
• involve students in effective questioning, reflection, collaboration, discussions, project-based learning, and thought-provoking tasks that stimulate their curiosity and inquiry ;
• integrate educational technologies that can help you create more engaging and thought-provoking content for your students. Check out these educational apps: 10 Critical Thinking Apps for students
• provide them with opportunities to make choices, and decisions and have some control over their learning ;
• encourage them to make connections to a real-life situation and identify patterns.

This is the definition of critical thinking and some strategies to develop it in students. This has become a valuable skill within an ever-changing global economy. Because the notion of intelligence has been changed, we no longer rely on the limits of our single mind to access the information resources we need to solve problems. So, critical thinking is worth teaching.

References
Brechin, A., Brown, H., & Eby, M. A. (2000). Critical practice in health and social care. London: Sage.
Buskist, W., & Irons, G. J. (2008). Simple strategies for teaching your students to think critically. In D.S. Dunn, J. S. Halonen, & R. A. Smith (Eds.), Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology: A H and book of Best Practices (pp. 49–57). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. doi:10.1002/9781444305173.ch5
Diestler, S. (2001). Becoming a critical thinker: A user-friendly manual (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Facione, P.A. (1998). Critical Thinking: What it is and why it counts. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.
Fasko, D. (2003). Critical thinking: origins, historical development, future direction. In D. Fasko (Ed.), Critical thinking and reasoning: Current research, theory, and practice (pp. 3–20). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Levy, D. A. (1997). Tools of critical thinking: Meta thoughts for psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Lipman, M. (1988). Critical thinking-What can it be? Educational Leadership, 46(1), 38–43.
Luke, J. J., Stein, J., Foutz, S., & Adams, M. (2007). Research to practice: Testing a tool for assessing critical thinking in art museum programs. Journal of Museum Education, 32(2), 123–135. doi:10.108 0/10598650.2007.11510564
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2006). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/files/Concepts_Tools.pdf